Professor D. B. Levine’s thoughts
On how Aeschylus’ Oresteia reflects some themes and structures of the Odyssey.
April 19, 2021.
Hermann Wilhelm Bissen 1798-1868: Orestes flees from the Eumenides. Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek, Copenhagen.
Athenaeus’s Deipnosphistae 8.347e (“Wise Men’s Dinner Party” 2nd century CE) cites the ancient notion that Aeschylus had once said that his tragedies were slices (τεμάχη = “cut-off portions”) of Homer’s great banquets. Therefore, it is natural for us to look at how this 5th century playwright re-shaped and re-imagined Homeric themes. Aeschylus does not simply make allusions to the Homeric story; he uses its characters, plot, and motifs to create his own version of the myth for his own purposes.
- The Myth.
We have already noted that in the Odyssey it was Aegisthus who murdered Agamemnon, while in the Oresteia, it was Clytemnestra who did the deed.
Each story uses the inherited myths for its own purpose. Homer wanted to stress that Orestes was a noble example for Telemachus, who killed Aegisthus, his father’s murderer, so he avoids the part of the myth that would show Orestes as a matricide (not a good example for Telemachus).
The Oresteia stresses that the crime is Clytemnestra’s, in order to show the great trial of Orestes as a mother-slayer and his acquittal, thus introducing the theme of the “new justice” and the homicide court of the Areopagus that supersedes the ancient blind vengeance model that the Furies represent.
- Justice and Vengeance.
Both the epic and the tragic stress the theme of punishment for outrageous behavior. In Homer, the Suitors are clearly guilty and deserve death.
But in Aeschylus, the issues are not so black and white, as we observed in our last class. It is true that Aeschylus stresses that Agamemnon and the Achaian army have outraged the shrines of Troy; that he has killed his daughter Iphigeneia; he has brought another woman to live in the palace with his legal wife. He comes from the accursed House of Atreus, over which a vengeful spirit holds sway, bringing disaster to each generation. The audience of the Oresteia is encouraged to see Clytemnestra’s murder of Agamemnon as horrific, yes – but Aeschylus also gives subtle hints about her justification that force the audience to see her actions in a nuanced way. Even the Chorus in the Agamemnon (1505-1512) admits that the guilt is not all Clytemnestra’s. They know about the curse on the house of Atreus that came from Atreus’ murder of his nephews:
CHORUS to CLYTEMNESTRA And you say that you are innocent of his murder? Do you have a witness? How can you? No, but I can believe that you were helped by the ancestral spirit of vengeance (Alastor ἀλάστωρ). The dark spirit of slaughter wades through a torrent of this family’s blood, Ares is forcing ahead to take his revenge for the children, butchered for that feast, their dark blood, long congealed.
In addition, Aeschylus calls into question the ancient “automatic” justice that the Furies uphold. Yes, justice is important, but, as Athena says, “There are two sides to this” (Furies 428), and the extenuating circumstances can be explained in an actual trial. The automatic and unthinking eye-for-an-eye justice is not for the civilized Athenians; that kind of violent retribution is for barbarians. It is draconian. As Apollo had said earlier to the Furies (Furies 185ff):
APOLLO There is no place for you in this house, you have no right here. You belong where justice slaughters men for their crimes, Where a man’s seed is killed by castration And young boys are mutilated, their bull-spirits crushed. Go, follow the stonings, hear the tortured cries of men, Hover by carcasses, staked out, driven through, impaled. You crave your ghastly feast and the gods despise you.
- The Cycle of Violence.
Both the epic and the tragic stress the idea that blood calls for blood. The murder of the Suitors cannot go unanswered, so their relatives set out to kill those who killed their relatives. That was the ancient way to “settle scores” before there was a jury system. The murder of Agamemnon cannot go unanswered, so Orestes is forced to kill his mother, thus triggering the attack of the Furies.
In both the Odyssey and the Oresteia, interestingly enough, it is Athena who puts an end to the violence. She stops the incipient battle between the Suitors’ relatives and Odysseus’ family and calls for the violence to stop after Laertes kills Antinoos’ father. Both sides obey the goddess and go home. Aeschylus supports the new jury system in Athens that Ephialtes helped put into place in 462 BCE, four years before the Oresteia (458 BCE). Athena casts the deciding vote to acquit Orestes, and convinces the Furies to become the Eumenides (“Kindly Ones”), and keep a respected place in the life of the polis.
As the daughter of Zeus, Athena’s voice is authoritative. Aeschylus’ choice to have Orestes come to Athens for his trial is an intentional move to tie the Athenian democracy to its judicial institutions, and to support its recent treaty with Argos, which Orestes stresses before he goes back home to Argos, a free man.
- Return in Disguise, Xenia, and Dolos.
Odysseus and Orestes return to their native lands and disguise themselves, in order to re-establish the proper order in their kingdoms and regain their rightful place as rulers.
In both stories, it is dolos (trickery) that allows the heroes to kill their enemies and to regain their kingdoms. Each of them adopts a different identity to mask their intentions.
Athena disguises Odysseus as a ragged old man, who makes up lying stories about his background, and acts as a beggar.
After meeting Electra, Orestes and Pylades present themselves as natives of Phocis and speak a different dialect to mask their identities (Libation Bearers 554-564), and when they present themselves to Clytemnestra at the palace, they lie about Orestes’ supposed death, in order to gain entrance and stifle any suspicions that Clytemnestra or Aegisthus might have.
Furthermore, the disguised hero obtains hospitality (xenia) from his enemies, because of his assumed identity. Both the play and the epic stress details of the guests’ receipt of hospitality from the ones who wrongly occupy the house (food, honored positions).
Odysseus establishes himself as the “honored” beggar at his own palace after he defeats the beggar Iros in a fistfight (Od. 18). Thereafter, the Suitors give him food. So, he enjoys their xenia while he plots their death.
Orestes, disguised as a Phocian, brings Clytemnestra (false) news that her son is dead. He asks for hospitality (Libation Bearers 663), and when Clytemnestra comes to the door, she says (668):
CLYTEMNESTRA Strangers, please, your needs are our pleasure, we have all ou would expect from a house such as this, warm baths and soft beds to soothe your cares away, and honest eyes to watch your sleep.
No doubt the audience would have noticed the irony of the offer of a warm bath, since that offer to Agamemnon resulted in her murdering him. Orestes then says that he must abide by the rules of hospitality in telling her the sad news, and Clytemnestra replies with more offerings of xenia (Libation Bearers 707ff):
CLYTEMNESTRA Following the long day’s journey, the weary traveler should rest. It is time you were made at home. Women, show this man to the guest rooms, take his traveling companion with him; let them enjoy the hospitality of this house.
- Father-Son Relationship.
Both the Odyssey and the Oresteia stress the loyalty of the king’s son to his father, and his filial piety. In the Telemachia, three characters tell Telemachus to be like Orestes, in order to support his father. Athena (disguised as Mentes), and kings Menelaus and Nestor stress to Telemachus how he must be as good a son as Orestes was, and that he must uphold his father’s honor and kingdom. Telemachus must do all he can to defend and support his father, as Orestes had done.
The bond between a son and his father is stronger than between a son and his mother, as Aeschylus stresses in the trial scene of the Furies. The god Apollo goes so far as to state that Orestes should not be condemned for shedding kindred blood, because his mother Clytemnestra was not his blood kin: She merely held the father’s seed: “Man mounts to create life, whereas a woman is a stranger fostering a stranger” (Furies 658-59).
The whole point of the trial scene at the end is to stress that the god Apollo at Delphi had commanded Orestes to avenge his father’s death, and that Zeus supported this move. This is where Justice lies. Athena casts the deciding vote in favor of Orestes’ acquittal. It might seem surprising to us to know her reason (Furies 734-741):
ATHENA Now my task is to make the last judgment, and I cast my vote for Orestes. I was born of no mother, and I defer to the male in all things with all my heart, except for marriage, as I will always be the child of my father. Thus, I cannot give precedence to the woman’s death: she murdered her husband, the guardian of the House; if the vote is split Orestes will be the winner.
We might add here that Odysseus solidifies his relationship with his father Laertes at the end of the Odyssey, just before the battle with the Suitors’ relatives. His anagnorisis (see below) leads to family solidarity in the face of common enemies.
- Anagnorisis and Family Bonding.
Aeschylus seems to follow Homer in presenting the idea of recognition (anagnorisis): in that the hero gains strength in his battle against his enemies when he makes himself known to a close relative or slave, and uses signs to prove his real identity.
Odysseus reveals himself to Telemachus (but not yet to the swineherd) when they are at Eumaeus’ hut and plot against the suitors in the palace (Od. 16). The loyal slave Eurycleia notices Odysseus’ scar (Od. 19), and must be forced into silence to preserve Odysseus’ plan. Odysseus shows his scar to his slaves Philoitios and Eumaeus, allowing them to take an active role in the slaughter of the Suitors (Od. 22). He proves himself to Penelope by revealing the special sign (σῆμα) of their bed (Od. 23), and achieves anagnorisis with his father Laertes by showing him the scar and identifying the fruit trees (Od. 24) before joining with him in battle against the suitors’ relatives. Each anagnorisis stresses the alliance between Odysseus and his household members and their solidarity in maintaining their rightful places, and fighting their enemies.
Let’s look at Aeschylus’ Oresteia. Three proofs (τεκμήριον Libation Bearers 205) convince Electra of her brother’s identity: the lock of his hair, his footprint, and the weaving that she had given him as a child (ὕφασμα Libation Bearers 231).
Once the siblings have established their relationship, they plot together to overthrow the usurpers in the palace, and work up their courage in a long savage lyric exchange with the Chorus (Libation Bearers 306-475), calling on their common father, who lies dead beneath their feet. The united siblings try to unite with their father, and use his power from below to overcome their enemies. Their Anagnorisis has united the family, and given it power.
ORESTES I call you father, stand with your kin.
ELECTRA Through the tears I ask this of you.
CHORUS We come together we echo the call. Hear us! Come into the light! Stand with us against the hated!
OR Force meet force, right meet right!
EL Gods, fulfill our rights with Justice!
CH I shudder to hear these prayers. Doom’s day has long been waiting. Let it come, let the prayers be answered! The agony of generations, the blood-soaked blow. The pandemonium of Ruin. The cruel, insufferable grief, such unrelenting pain. The house can be healed, but not from outside, the cure is found within, savage, brutal bloodshed. Gods below, this is your hymn!
7. Loyal Slave Women
The heroes receive vital help from a loyal slave woman.
Eurycleia in the Odyssey performs tasks to help Odysseus against the Suitors. She keeps his identity secret after she has found out that the beggar is Odysseus; she keeps the maids away from the hall; she helps to identify the disloyal women. In Libation Bearers, the slave woman Cilissa hates the usurper Aegisthus (“the man who fouled this House” 764), and follows the instructions to tell him to come without his guards, thus allowing Orestes to kill him without danger.
Both Eurycleia and Cilissa had been nurses for the heroes’ sons: Cilissa for Orestes (with a precious description of how difficult the infant Orestes was: “His screaming would keep me up half the night” Libation Bearers 742-765), and Eurycleia for Telemachus (Od. 1. 429ff: “She had nursed him when he was a baby.”)
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